Maria I of Portugal

Lore & Background

Maria was the eldest of four daughters born to Dom Joseph, Prince of Brazil, and Infanta Mariana Victoria of Spain. Educated by Jesuit tutors, her studies focused on religion and theology, though she became proficient in French and Latin. She also received instruction in painting from Domingos Sequeira and in singing and instrumental music from David Perez. In June 1753, she fell gravely ill and was bled six times; at her mother's request, a wooden statue of Jesus known as Senhor dos Passos was placed in her bedroom. She recovered by 8 July and attributed her survival to the statue, strengthening her religious convictions. She married her uncle Infante Peter on 6 June 1760; he was 18 years her senior, and the couple shared a strong religious devotion. They had six children, with three surviving infancy: José, John, and Mariana Vitória. Upon ascending the throne, she pardoned more than eight hundred prisoners and dismissed the Marquis of Pombal. Her reign marked the Viradeira, a partial reversal of Pombal's policies. In 1785, she issued a charter restricting industrial activity in Brazil. The trial and execution of Tiradentes took place in 1789. After her husband's death in 1786 and her eldest son's death from smallpox in 1788, she developed clinical depression. In February 1792, she was deemed insane and treated by Francis Willis, the same physician who attended King George II. In 1807, she moved the court to Brazil, and in 1815 became Queen of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves.

Reader's Guide

Maria I's significance lies in her role as the first undisputed queen regnant of Portugal and the first monarch of Brazil. Her reign began with the Viradeira—the dismissal of the Marquis of Pombal and a partial reversal of his policies, though she preserved much of the administrative system. She pardoned over eight hundred prisoners upon accession. Her early years saw economic growth and major building projects: the completion of the Palace of Queluz and the inauguration of the Palace of Ajuda. However, personal losses—the death of her husband Peter III in 1786, her eldest son José from smallpox in 1788, and her confessor Inácio de São Caetano—led to clinical depression. By February 1792, she was deemed insane and treated by Francis Willis. Her second son John served as prince regent. In 1807, she moved the court to Brazil, and in 1815, after Brazil was elevated to a kingdom, she became Queen of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. She died on 20 March 1816, succeeded by her son Dom John VI.

Did You Know?

• Maria was baptized with the full name Maria Francisca Isabel Josefa Antónia Gertrudes Rita Joana.
• In June 1753, she fell gravely ill and was bled six times; she attributed her recovery to a wooden statue of Jesus called Senhor dos Passos.
• She married her uncle Infante Peter on 6 June 1760; he was 18 years her senior.
• Upon ascending the throne, she pardoned more than eight hundred prisoners.
• In February 1792, she was deemed insane and treated by Francis Willis, the same physician who attended King George II.

Ascension and the First Undisputed Queen Regnant

Maria ascended the throne on 24 February 1777 at age 42, following the death of her father King Joseph I. She moved swiftly to dismantle the influence of the Marquis of Pombal, ordering him not to return to the palace before formally dismissing him in early March. After recovering from measles, she met with her ministers on 27 April, who confirmed that her husband Peter would reign nominally as King Peter III while sovereign authority remained vested solely in Maria. She was formally acclaimed on 13 May in the Praça do Comércio. Her accession marked the beginning of the Viradeira, a period of partial reversal of Pombal's policies. Her first cabinet included both former Pombaline ministers and moderate opponents. An inquiry found Pombal guilty of abuses of power, but Maria pardoned him due to his age and ill health, reluctant to reflect adversely on her father's legacy. A separate investigation exonerated the Távora family, though their estates were not restored. While signing the edict confirming their pardon on 9 October 1780, Maria suffered her first major mental breakdown.

Faith, Persecution, and the Pombal Conflict

Maria's religious devotion was central to her identity. After the 1755 Lisbon earthquake, Pombal ordered all Jesuit confessors dismissed from the royal residence, including Maria's respected confessor Timóteo de Oliveira. Following the attempted assassination of King Joseph on 3 September 1758, Pombal prosecuted the Távora family and the Duke of Aveiro; many were tortured into confessing, and several nobles were brutally executed in January 1759. Maria knew several of the accused aristocrats and allegedly pleaded with her father on their behalf. In 1761, Jesuit priest Gabriel Malagrida was convicted of heresy and executed. Maria was deeply disturbed by the executions and by Pombal's wider persecution of Jesuits. Fearing Maria would reverse his secularizing policies, Pombal sought to bypass her in the succession in favor of her son José, but the plan was disclosed to Queen Mariana in January 1774, and Maria appealed to her father, who abandoned the proposal.

Grief, Depression, and the Regency

Maria's madness was first officially noticed in 1786, when she had to be carried back to her apartments in a state of delirium. On 25 May 1786, her husband Peter III died; Maria was devastated and forbade any court entertainments. Her eldest son and heir, Prince Dom José, died aged 27 from smallpox on 11 September 1788. That same year, on 2 November, her daughter Mariana Vitória died from the same illness at age 19, a few days after giving birth. Her confessor Inácio de São Caetano, Titular Archbishop of Salonica, died almost four weeks later. These deaths may have resulted in Maria developing major depressive disorder. Another potential cause was her incestuous ancestry, substantiated by two of her sisters having similar conditions. In February 1792, Maria was deemed insane and treated by Francis Willis, the same physician who attended King George II. Her second son John then served as prince regent.

The Great Relocation and a Dual Legacy

With Napoleon's European conquests, Maria and her court moved to the Portuguese colony of Brazil in 1807. After Brazil was elevated to a kingdom in 1815, Maria became Queen of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. She died on 20 March 1816 and was succeeded by her son Dom John VI. History remembers her by two contrasting epithets: Maria the Pious in Portugal, reflecting her deep Catholic devotion, and Maria the Mad in Brazil, a reference to the depression and mental deterioration that consumed her final years.